Circumlocution

Circumlocution Circumlocution Circumlocution By Maeve Maddox The noun locution comes from a Latin verb meaning â€Å"to speak.† As an English noun it means â€Å"a form of expression.† The prefix circum- is also from Latin and means â€Å"around.† Circumlocution, therefore, means â€Å"expressing oneself in a round about way.† Circumlocution has its uses. Alexander Pope uses it to comic effect in his mock epic, The Rape of the Lock, as when he refers to a little pair of scissors as â€Å"a two-edged weapon† and a â€Å"little engine.† Politicians, educators, and other people who want to manipulate our perceptions of reality find circumlocution an effective means of obscuring meaning or making something ordinary seem special or profound. For example, collateral damage ethnic cleansing economical with the truth mistakes were made text-to-text connections (comparison of two books) extended constructed response (essay) brief constructed response (paragraph) selected response (multiple choice) As can be seen from the examples, euphemism is a type of circumlocution, as are many clichà ©s. Euphemism: referring to something unpleasant by more pleasant words, for example, passed away for died. Clichà ©: a stereotyped or commonplace expression, for example, It was raining cats and dogs. Here are some examples of circumlocution from the web; italics mine: The Committee must afford an opportunity for public comment at each of its meetings. –Illinois General Assembly statutes. At this point in time, we do not have evidence of consumers postponing expenditure plans, which is something one would observe in a deflationary environment,† Draghi told a symposium organized by the Bundesbank. –European Central Bank President Mario Draghi. Why does the University have a requirement for health insurance as condition of enrollment? According to Brandimonte this was due to the fact that the subtraction task was easier The department may peremptorily suspend the driving privilege of the person until such time as the licensee shall have submitted to re-examination. The examples could be rewritten to avoid circumlocution: â€Å"The Committee must permit public comment† â€Å"At this time, we do not have evidence† â€Å"Why does the University require health insurance† â€Å"According to Brandimonte this was because† Here, with suggested translations, are some prepositional phrases that often contribute to circumlocution: in light of the fact (because) in reference to (about) with the exception of (except) in the event of (if) in a timely fashion (quickly) notwithstanding the fact that (although) on the grounds that (because) in view of the fact that (because) Circumlocution for stylistic effect can be useful to create a humorous effect or to create a pompous or deceitful fictional character. In writing intended to convey information in a straightforward manner, however, circumlocution is a major stylistic defect. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. Programme25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be)10 Terms for the Common People

Ex-fellons and the Right to Vote Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ex-fellons and the Right to Vote - Essay Example Above all, the hallmark of a thriving and ever growing nation is that time and again it dares to face the questions and issues that tend to be an impediment to the well being and dignity of some or all of its citizens. In some states of the United States of America, ex-felons, that is the people who committed a crime and have served the concomitant sentence, are not allowed to vote. This very provision not only deprives a good proportion of the citizens of their essential and basic rights, but also in a way tends to compromise their sense of dignity and respect. In a social, political, legal and humanitarian context, the ex-felons should have the right to vote in this country. The provision of debarring the ex-felons from voting is not only anti-democratic, but also contrary to the objective of enabling the ex-felons rejoin the society as worthy equals. It could reasonably be understood that a great many people tend to have reservations, as far as the task of taking an initiative about mixing with and employing ex-felons is concerned. Yet, the very society which punished these people for the crimes they committed also carries the responsibility of assuring that once they have served their sentence, they do not get stigmatized and persecuted, once they are set free. However, the provision for restricting the ex-felons from voting not only amounts to a state sponsored persecution, but also does much to further alienate and sideline these individuals. Genuinely speaking, how could one expect these people to rejoin the society as law-abiding and responsible citizens, when they state formally declares them to be untrustworthy, by debarring them from voting. Ma ny people tend to put forward the argument that serving a sentence is not a guarantee that the ex-felons have abstained from their criminal and unlawful tendencies. However, at a deeper analysis, this argument smacks predominantly of abject prejudice, rather than being logical enough to deserve a blanket generalization. There was a time when many thought that the blacks should not have the right to vote. There was also a time when many felt that the women should not have the right to vote. In retrospect, everybody now understands that such provisions were based on ruthless prejudice and senseless biases. The plea for allowing the ex-felons to vote ought to be seen in the same light. A Democracy cannot deny a future to a citizen, simply because one had a tainted past. United States of America is a country based on the rule of the law and is run as per the sacrosanct constitutional arrangements. As per the law of the land, every citizen guilty of violating the law should face a trial and be appropriately punished by a court of law. The very same law also states that no citizen can be punished twice for committing one crime, and the act of punishing an ex-felon for a crime, for which one has already served a sentence, deserves to be labeled as being extrajudicial. Now, when the people who have feelings against ex-felons say that these people should be punished for their trespasses, it is just and understandable. Yet, advocating the withdrawal of the voting rights of ex-felons, especially when they have already paid their debt to the society, is positively akin to extrajudicial and unconstitutional lynching, if nothing else. Declaring a human to be an unequal and non-citizen, especially when one has immensely suffered for the crime one committed, perhaps not only at the level of one’

Crittaclly Describe and Analyse the world Top Ten Airports of the Essay

Crittaclly Describe and Analyse the world Top Ten Airports of the Civil Aviation Industry - Essay Example The airport was once the largest airport in America before Atlanta airport took over the first place. The O’Hare International Airport has four terminals with a combined number of an astounding 182 gates. The airport runs over 50 different airlines and has a positive feedback from its customers. This is indeed one the largest and the oldest airports of human history. The airport was created in 1923 and in 1949 it was named Chicago Midway airport from its previous name of Chicago Municipal airport. This is the second largest airport in the Chicago areas and the second busiest in the state of Illinois after Chicago’s OHare International Airport. The number of travelers that passed through Midway was 17,340,497 in2008. The airport is the 30th busiest airport in the Unites States. The airport has an over eighty years of top quality service, with only 21 accidents. The last tragedy took place almost thirty four years ago in 1976. The airport has 43 gates in total. Southwest airline is still their dominant service which controls 28 of these 43 gates. The two main players in the Chicago IL area are as mentioned Midway and O’Hare. According to the financial statements issued by Chicago city airport system, O’Hare saw 75 million customers and Midway as many as 19 million customers. If we analyze the market share in terms of customer base than we can say that the market share of O’Hare is almost 79%. There are a many other smaller airports in the area with negligible market share. The industry is owned and run by the city council. The mayor of Chicago is the person in charge and has delegated operational authority to John A. Roberson who is the Commissioner in Chicago’s Department of Aviation. The airport has two types of customers. The primary customers are the travelers. They use the facilities being provided by Chicago IL airport system such as restaurants, lodging and restrooms. The main

HOMEOSTASIS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

HOMEOSTASIS - Assignment Example Insulin facilitates the uptake of the glucose in the blood by cells to result in cellular respiration. However, an excess amount of the glucose remains in the bloodstream. The enzyme facilitates the conversion of excess amounts of soluble glucose to glycogen, an insoluble carbohydrate stored in the body muscles and the liver (Abpischools.org.uk 2013). The body utilizes large amounts of glucose in the blood to perform actions. During periods of illness, the body uses glucose to boost the immunity. As such, the sugar levels in the bloodstream drops below the ideal level, resulting in deficits reducing rates of cell respiration. The situation may also result from increased fasting and starvation. In these periods, the pancreas releases glucagon, which facilitates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles into glucose for circulation in the blood stream (Abpischools.org.uk 2013). A continuous series of these two processes maintains the level of blood sugar. This is a condition where the blood contains an excess amount of glucose due to failure of the body to use glucose for cellular respiration. The causes of high blood sugar are failure of the pancreas to secrete sufficient insulin or the failure of the cells to respond to insulin. The symptoms range from increased thirst, tiredness to frequent urinating. In this is condition the blood sugar level drops below the ideal level, resulting in a deficit (Abpischools.org.uk 2013). Medications taken orally may result in accidental hypoglycemia. Excessive consumption of alcohol may block the release of glucose into the bloodstream by the liver lowering the blood sugar. The condition may result from the occurrence of some diseases in severe strains in the liver. Kidney disorders prevent the excretion of medication that build up and affect the glucose levels in the blood. Tumors in the pancreas stimulate overproduction of insulin that facilitates

Review of How We Do Harm by Otis Brawley and Paul Goldberger

Review of How We Do Harm by Otis Brawley and Paul Goldberger In America, there is an underlying assumption that medical professionals placing their patients care above all else. We believe that our physicians follow important concepts such as the principle of beneficence, and the principle of nonmaleficence. Yet in the book How We Do Harm, Brawley introduces his readers to the back rooms and the unknown conversations of those in who are a part of the medical profession. This insiders perspective is Brawley’s (and his co-author) real genius, the ways he makes makes what could otherwise be an esoteric and dense topic become an enjoyable book. Though a joke about how important money is to the american medical system A Wallet Biopsy, its one that is important because if you can afford the best care,get the best care. If however, you cannot get good care, you get the a bare minimum of care. Yet Brawley does not make this a purely socialist critique. In many ways, Brawley acknowledges that wealth can cause its own problems in America. Patients with sufficient wealth often demand treatment that borders on irrational, and for those with means finding a doctor willing to satisfy their concerns is not hard. The reason for this treatment seeking behavior, is that the American healthcare system is not design to prevent elective treatments which are not only not necessary but also often quite expensive. Yet the doctors are not dupes and the reason why there is always a doctor willing to give into to the demands of patients providing they can pay the costs. Yet at the same time Brawley is not seeking to place physicians on a pedestal who can do no harm. Brawley introduces us to two different but equally heartbreaking cases Helen and Lillia. Helen’s story is a used has an exemplar of the â€Å"more is better† philosophy Brawley sees as endemic in the medical community. After having a mastectomy lump, her oncologist She was â€Å"offered† post surgical chemotherapy. Her oncologist explained that a stronger dose is better than a weaker dose. â€Å"More is better† notes Brawley had been the fallback strategy for oncology since the 1950s with the general opinion being that , more chemotherapy translated to greater the more effectiveness. Yet for Brawley this approach is not the real tragedy of Helens story is that she was recommended a autologous bone marrow transplantation since her insurance company will pay for more of the costs of the transplant and chemotherapy (page 32). As a result of this treatment, Helen experienced far more severe complications than expected and ultimately these complications kept her in the hospital for five months and is then transferred to a rehabilitation hospital. Taken altogether this â€Å"recommended† procedure cost her a year of her life. Then three years later, Helen discovers that this painful experience had no demonstrable effect in improving survival. When Helen asked her oncologist , her oncologist responds â€Å"this was what everybody was doing at the time.† Brawley does points out that Helen is not alone as between 1989 and 2001 at least 23000 women might ha In the second case, Lilla Romeo was first diagnosed with breast cancer (Stage 1) in 1995. She had surgery followed by radiation. Five years after the initial diagnosis, a routine scan (how many scans did she have in the 5 years?) showed the disease had returned. The doctors told her that â€Å"the prognosis turned grim†¦the cancer was incurable, and the goal of treatment was to delay the inevitable.† So Lilla was persuaded, and started non-stop chemotherapy (page 71). In 2003, Lilla remembered an oncology nurse at the New York University Medical asked if she was feeling tired and with a hemoglobin reading just under ten, she was â€Å"suggested and offered† cancer-fatigue drugs (at that time, the popular one was Procrit by JJ) In 2004, she was told that the hospital had switched from Procrit to another drug, Aranesp (manufactured by AMGEN), which caused a burning sensation under her stain at the injection site (page 79). In 2010, when she requested copies of her medical records from the doctors who had treated her, Lilla learned that she had received a lot more Procrit and Aranesp than she knew. Her first dose was administered on 1/11/2001 and then almost weekly thereafter. Altogether, she was given 221 1/2 doses. When Lilla was started on the hemoglobin-building drugs (also known as ESAs), little did she know that the drug companies manufactured a medical condition: cancer fatigue. She also had no idea that â€Å"her infusion was the front-row seat for observing a spectacular, indeed, cataclysmic, failure in medicine.† Dr Brawley strongly believed that these drugs have shortened Lilla’s life. She died on June 9, 2010 at the age of 63 (Just before her death, Lilla was suggested and given â€Å"Avastin†!!) Finally, there is the case of Ralph DeAngelo, who was prescribed aggressive prostate cancer treatment after a positive prostatic specific antigen (PSA) screening. Unfortunately for Ralph DeAngelo, PSA screening has lead to financial gain to many medical businesses, but Ralph DeAngelo ended-up incontinent, sexually impotent, and with a rectal fistula into the bladder (Brawley Goldberg, 2011, pp.215-230). It was very eye-opening to find out that physicians may sometimes prescribe experimental drugs to patients with little or no detailed information or informed consent about the potential side effects and the eventual lack of thorough trial studies on a given drug. It was also sad to be reminded that the American healthcare system lacks good use of its resources. This is particularly true for the â€Å"working-poors† who lack proper access to healthcare. By the time they qualify for Medicaid, they are so sick that their situation is so dire that it’s likely to have a negative outcome. Finally, it was disconcerting to find out that physicians may prescribe some expensive and potentially harmful screenings to patients for their sole financial gains. Part III: Corroboration. Studies have shown that despite the advances made in the war against cancer, there are many disparities in the delivery of care, based on factors such as race, income, and geographic area. Many patients report problems such as lack of insurance, high co-payment for prescription drugs and transportation issues. In addition, African-Americans are more likely to be diagnosed of advance stage cancer than Caucasians (Schwaderer Itano, 2007). In addition, despites their widespread use, some screening tests such as the PSA have shown some limitations. About 75 percent of positive PSA test are false positive, which may be associated with psychological harm more than a year after the test. In addition, diagnostic testing and aggressive treatment of a non life threatening prostate cancer may result in adverse consequences such as erectile dysfunction, incontinence, and even patient’s death (Slatkoff, Gamboa, Zolotor, Mounsey Jones, 2011). Shortly after he turned 70, Mr. Ralph De Angelo, a retired department–store manager in the heart of black America, saw a newspaper advertisement that claimed that prostate cancer screening saves lives. The advertisement also mentioned that 95% of men diagnosed with localized disease are cured. The following is the tragic story of Mr. De Angelo after his prostate screening and how unnecessary harm can be done to those who go for screening of the prostate, breast, etc. This is a classic example of collateral damage (due to overtreatment) described in the book â€Å"HOW WE DO HARM† by Dr Otis Webb Brawley, MD a medical oncologist and Executive Vice President of the American Cancer Society. In 2005, Mr. De Angelo, after his prostate screening, was diagnosed with prostate cancer, with a PSA reading of 4.3 ng/ml (just 0.3 above is considered normal). He was urged to have a biopsy. Two of the 12 biopsies showed cancer. The Gleason score was 3 plus 3 which is associated with the most commonly diagnosed and most commonly treated form of prostate cancer. There is no way to know whether a patient with this diagnosis will develop metastatic disease or live a normal life unaffected by the disease. With this uncertainty, Mr. De Angelo was persuaded by his urologist to perform a radical robotic prostatectomy which he (the urologist) thought was the gold standard of care. After the operation, he was told he had a small tumour 5mm by 5mm x 6mm in a moderate size (50cc) prostate. The tumour was all in the right side of the prostate. This means that the tumor didn’t appear highly aggressive under the microscope. Good news? Unfortunately, Ralph realized that he was then incontinent. Three months later, the incontinence was still there and he had to wear pampers continuously. Besides incontinence, Ralph was also impotent and given Viagra. With a lingering 0.95 ng/ml (even though his prostate has been removed), a radiation oncologist suggested â€Å"salvage radiation therapy† to the pelvis. Four weeks into the radiation, Ralph saw blood in his stool. This was due to radiation proctitis, i.e. radiation damage to the rectum. He continued having incontinence, but also developed a burning sensation upon urination. Later, Mr. De Angelo stopped his radiation with one more week to go. For the rectal proctitis, he went to a gastroenterologist, who prescribed steroids in rectal foam that he had to put up his rectum four times a day. About three weeks after stopping the radiation, Mr. De Angelo realised that whenever he passed gas, some of it came out of his urethra. He also sensed liquid from his rectum soiling his diapers. He was confirmed having a rectal fistula into the bladder†¦there was a hole between Ralph’s rectum and his bladder. After several urinary infections and when the fistula didn’t seem to be healing, he had to see a GI surgeon. He performed a colostomy to keep stool off the inflamed rectum and the hole into the bladder. The next step was an ureterostomy, a surgery that will bring urine to abdominal wall and collect it in a bag, just like his bowel movements. In Dec 2009, Mr. De Angelo’s daughter called Dr Brawley to inform that her father had â€Å"urinary tract infection† which later progressed to sepsis, a widespread bacterial infection in the blood. On the fifth day of hospitalisation, Ralph passed away (only 4 years from diagnosis). Interestingly†¦Ã¢â‚¬ the death certificate reads that death was caused by a urinary tract infection. It doesn’t mention that the urinary tract infection was due to his prostate-cancer treatment and a radiation-induced fistula†¦.Mr. De Angelo’s death will not be considered a death due to prostate cancer, even though his death was caused by the cure. In conclusion, Dr Brawley strongly believed that†¦ â€Å"the majority of these men, who are treated with radiation or hormones or both, got no benefit from treatment. They get only the side effects including those that Mr. De Angelo had: proctitis i.e. inflammation and bleeding from the rectum, cystitis, burning sensation on urination and a feeling of urgency, a rectal fistula in which bowels and bladder are connected. The side effects of hormones can be diabetes, cardiac diseases, osteoporosis, and muscle loss. In the case of Mr. Ralph De Angelo, both the surgeon and the radiation oncologist got paid handsomely. They both likely thought they were doing the right thing. However, Ralph got the side effects, and his quality of life was destroyed (too much collateral damage?). One parting remark by Dr Otis Webb Brawley which is very relevant to this article: â€Å"Prostate-cancer screening and aggressive treatment may save lives, but it definitely sells adult diapers â€Å" Part IV: Practice Application. After reading How We Do Harm, I think that it would affect my nursing practice in many ways. As healthcare professional, this book reminds me of the importance of staying current with my nursing knowledge through continuing education, and reading resources from organizations such as the Mayo Clinic, the American Nurses’ Association and the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention. In addition, as patient advocate, this book reinforces my desire to empower all patients under my care, so that they may be active partners in their healthcare. More than ever, I will encourage my patients to educate themselves on their diseases; in addition, I will encourage my patients to learn more about all treatments options so that they may make the best choice for their healthcare. How American Medicine Does Harm To Patients With powerful incentives set in motion, many hospitals and oncology practices in the US instructed nurses to ask leading questions about â€Å"fatigue† with the intent of expanding sales to a growing number of patients and upping the dosage to each patient. This is referred to as â€Å"an ESA treatment opportunity† (ESA means erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, drugs used to overcome fatigue, low blood counts). (page 85). To increase their earnings, drug companies and doctors set out on a search for treatment opportunities, often forgetting about the sacred trust between doctors and patients (page 85). The exact magnitude of harm is harder to gauge†¦most of the money was spent on drugs (e.g. ESAs) that were prescribed for the wrong reasons and under false, manufactured pretences. These drugs were not used to cure disease or make patients feel better. They were used to make money for doctors and pharmaceutical companies at the expense of patients, insurance companies†¦the technical term for this is overtreatment and overtreatment equals harm (page 97). Doctors do some horrible, irrational things under the guise of seeking to benefit patients†¦.For example offering a bone marrow transplant for a breast cancer patient, prophylactic doses of ESA drugs†¦these are only a few examples. The system rewards us for selling our goods and services, and we play the game (page 122). You don’t deviate from the science. You don’t make it up as you are going along. You have to have a reason to give the drugs you are giving. You have to tell the patients the truth (page 145). Commenting further on ESA drugs, some doctors didn’t bother to check what the patient’s haemoglobin was and erred on the side of giving the ESA every time they give chemotherapy. Doctors routinely prescribed the drugs for uses, in which it had not been studied-such as anaemia caused by cancer itself, as opposed to anaemia caused by chemotherapy (page 78). †¦.Doctors try out things just to see whether they will work (page 160) Earlier in the book (page 29), Dr Brawley mentioned that â€Å"A hospital was the place where they withheld treatment or where they tried things on you without telling you what they were doing and why (page 29/30). When a drug succeeds in controlling cancer, we learn about it at conferences and in scientific journals. Stories of our fiascos, though no less instructive, are almost invisible, especially if there are cautionary tales that lay bare the fundamental flaws in the system (page 157). Cancer is hard to understand, and yet doctors rush patients (page 182). Survival measures time that elapses after diagnosis. By diagnosing a cancer earlier, survival rates are increased. The more you diagnose, the more you push up survival (page 193). Somewhere along the way, we have been conditioned to believe that a new treatment is always better (page 197) A new drug must be better than the old. A new medical device must also be better (page 202). Inappropriate use of certain drugs can be attributed to the profit motive. A recent study of prescribing pattern demonstrated that as soon as the profit motive weakened, inappropriate prescribing of these drugs dropped (page 197). The overuse of radiologic imaging is a major problem†¦..†up to one-third of radiologic imaging tests are unnecessary. This is a serious problem, not just because these tests are expensive, but because they expose the patient to radiation that can cause cancer. Some have estimated that 1% of cancers in the United States are caused by radiation from medical imaging† (page 202). Even when administered properly, cancer drugs can bring the patient to the brink of death. An overdose can easily push him off the cliff (page 279). Much of the money currently spent on healthcare (in the US) is money wasted on unnecessary and harmful, sick care. Even for the sick, a lot of necessary care is not given at the appropriate time. The result is more expensive care given later (page 281). The medical profession frequently allows bad doctors to continue to practice. The profession doesn’t police itself. Chalk it all up to apathy. Or ignorance (page 282). Many physicians are ignorant of some aspects of the field of medicine in which they practice. They tend to think the newer pill or newer treatment must be better because it is new. Ignorance is a failure to think deeply. It is a failure to be inquisitive. It is a failure to keep an open mind (page 282). Dr Brawley’s most direct critique of our healthcare system â€Å".†America does not have a health-care system. We have a sick-care system†.

The Long Road to Law School :: Law College Admissions Essays

The Long Road to Law School    Many college students know exactly what field to enter after graduation and have been preparing for that field over the course of their entire college career. However, I had difficulty discovering a career field rewarding enough to devote my entire life to, a career field worthy of education. While I had always considered pursuing the law and majored in public policy as an undergraduate, I was never passionate about it. I didn't have clear goals, and it seemed to me as if my degree and my circumstances were pushing me into studying the law; I needed to rediscover why I fell in love with the law in the first place.    As a college senior, I took the LSAT because all of my classmates were taking it. I did not prepare, and I really did not want to attend law school after college; thankfully, my low LSAT score guaranteed this. I needed to understand more about life before I could give myself to a career. After being in school for about two decades, I felt completely out of touch with reality and did not think I would ever find career direction by attending more schooling. With these thoughts in mind, I determined I needed real-world experience to help me find the direction I so desperately sought.    I accepted an investor relations position in New York that tested both my intelligence and my work ethic. The first few months moved at a hectic pace as I attempted to acquire knowledge of my new pursuit and to control the responsibilities assigned to me. However, I quickly adjusted and maintained a schedule of seventy-hour workweeks. Because of my hard work and growing expertise, my colleagues began to acknowledge me as an important member of the organization and my opinion became respected and sought out. This respect provided me with a great deal of confidence, and I began to realize that I had unlimited potential. I had finally regained the attitude necessary for success, and my recent LSAT score is a testament of this self-awakening.    While I may not have taken the direct route to law school, I took the course that suited me well.

Plantation agriculture Essay

Plantation agriculture is a kind of commercial arable farming in the world. It is especially important in humid tropics with luxuriant growth of vegetation. Its economic effectiveness is always emphasized, bringing both positive and negative impacts. In recent decades, crop diversification is introduced and the ecological balance of the natural environment is greatly conserved. Plantation agriculture refers to the growing of cash crops on large foreign owned estates in countries of tropical environment. It is usually practiced in a large scale with monoculture, in which only a certain type of plant is dominant. Take Papua New Guinea as an example, in the area, cacao, coffee and rubber are mainly grown in the region for export to other countries. Under this kind of farming, there are positive impacts to the economy. Firstly, due to its large scale of operation and being export-oriented in Papua New Guinea, the supply of products is regular and of uniformly high quality. With high demand for the products, this attracts large amount of investment of capital from the foreign countries, such as Europe and North America, thus allowing the farmers being financially able to provide the expensive machinery capable of turning out a high grade product. Benefiting from economies of scale, this enables both the transportation cost and production cost to be lowered. Secondly, plantations are also able to undertake greater scientific research and the eradication of pests and diseases. For example, one large sugar company in the former British colony of Guyana was able to employ a large research staff to produce a strain of sugar cane resistant to leaf-scald disease. Besides, government assistance has brought improved crop varieties, scientific research, new pesticides and fertilizers and effective marketing, The government of Papua New Guinea launched The Cape Hoskins Oil Palm Scheme to solve land disputes of many small holdings, strengthening national self-reliance. With increasing demand for the plantation, the employment rate of Papua New Guinea is greatly increased as there are more needs for personnel to manage crop growing and researching. Some crop processing and manufacturing industries are set up to satisfy the demand for crops. The farm productivity is increased as well. As people can earn more income from this kind of farming, this stimulates the rate of urbanization, hence the development of infrastructure and improvement of public facilities, such as roads, railways, ports, towns, schools, hospitals and the supply of electricity and water. As a result, the living standard of the labour is greatly improved. Despite the economic benefits, plantation farming somehow brings negative impacts to Papua New Guinea. First is the reliance upon the protected markets in Australia. At present, about one-third of the copra, 40 percent of the coffee, most of the cocoa and rubber is exported to Australia, which is assigned to admit duty free. In return, Papua New Guinea has to pay taxes for any imports. This leads to outflow of capital to foreign countries because this kind of farming is highly export-oriented. Second is the problem of labour. Plantations require large amount of cheap labour, but the wage rate is progressively higher because of the rising living standard and commercialization of the country. This increases the cost of production and thus reduces the competitiveness among other countries for the same kind of farming. Apart from this, the risk of crop failure is an important factor for consideration. As plantation agriculture is highly specialized. People highly rely on monoculture to earn a living. When the price of cash crops falls drastically or there is a sudden of crop failure, the income of farmers will fall as well. As a result, the earning of farmers tend to be unstable and badly affected the national income of Papua New Guinea. Besides, people have to import other necessities from other countries instead of planting within their own country, self-sufficiency cannot be achieved. In this way, there is no other source to safeguard the return of farmers. To overcome the negative impacts, crop diversification is a good method to reduce the over-reliance on certain types of cash crops. Ecologically, this method can also be beneficial to the environment. Since different types of crops are grown, the risk of crop failure decreases. This can stop the spread of diseases and pests for a particular type of crops. The population of pests decreases. This in turn reduces the use of pesticides. Hence, the chance of stream pollution is smaller, the sea organisms will not be poisoned or suffocated so easily, the nutrient flow can be more stable. There will be greater diversity of species of biomass, so the ecosystem will be more stable. Furthermore, diversification of crops increases the vegetation cover. There will be less surface runoff and soil erosion, yet infiltration increases. The nutrients of the soil can be preserved. Crop diversification also reduces the exhaustion of certain type of nutrients, fertility can be maintained and thus the use of fertilizer will be less common as well. Climatically, because of less crop failures, the amount of biomass increases. The evapotranspiration rate and wind speed can be more stable, so the microclimate can be maintained constant, the risk of global warming will not be getting serious so fast. In conclusion, plantation of cash crops is significant in Papua New Guinea for economic development. Though crop diversification may not be as profitable as plantation agriculture, ecological environment should not be ignored. In long-term, diversification of crops is a good way to safeguard the natural environment and brings more stable income to the farmers as well.